In ancient Egypt, women were seen as equals to men in most respects except for their professional roles. While men typically led the household and the nation, women were the backbone of domestic life and significantly contributed to the nation's stability. They held various occupations such as artisans, brewers, doctors, musicians, and scribes, and at times, they even held positions that gave them authority over men.
Ma'at, representing harmony and balance, stood at the heart of ancient Egyptian civilization. The pharaoh, as the intermediary between deities and humans, exemplified this principle, guiding society towards a balanced existence. This ethos of equilibrium permeated Egyptian culture, evident in its art, architecture, religious observances, and statecraft, and was mirrored in the gender dynamics that characterized the civilization's history.
Egyptologists observe that women in ancient Egypt were on par with men in many aspects, aside from employment. While men engaged in combat, governed, and oversaw farming, women were responsible for cooking, sewing, and household management. Despite the patriarchal structure, where men assumed roles like king, governor, and general, and were seen as household leaders, women wielded significant power and autonomy within this framework.
In ancient Egypt, legal rights for women were on par with those of men, with social class rather than gender determining one's rights. Property typically passed along the female line, suggesting a recognition of maternity as certain, while paternity was deemed less so. Women had the autonomy to manage, sell, or bequeath their property, engage in trade, participate in legal contracts, act as executors of wills, testify in legal matters, initiate lawsuits, and adopt children independently. They were deemed legally competent, contrasting with the situation in ancient Greece, where women were often under male guardianship. Egyptian women's autonomy served as a model for Greek women in Egypt, who were inspired to seek similar independence.
Despite this, women's status sometimes hinged on male endorsement and could be contested or unrecognized. Many women might not have fully exercised their rights due to unawareness. Nonetheless, the high regard for women in ancient Egypt was manifest across the culture, from its religion to its customs. Deities of both genders held significant roles, reflecting the societal value of the feminine. Women had the freedom to marry or divorce at will, pursue desired occupations within societal bounds, and travel freely. The civilization's mythology often highlighted the importance of feminine elements, indicating a deep-seated respect for women's roles in society.
**THE EXALTED FEMININE IN ANCIENT EGYPTIAN BELIEF**
In ancient Egyptian spirituality, the feminine aspect was deeply revered and elevated, making women prominent figures within temple and religious life. In the most celebrated creation story, while the god Atum often receives credit for creating the world atop the primordial mound amid the chaotic waters, in certain versions, it is the goddess Neith who initiates creation. Even in narratives focusing on Atum, the primordial waters are depicted as Nu and Naunet, symbolizing a harmonious union of male and female forces that catalyze creation.
Post-creation, the significant role of women is further illustrated in the well-known myth of Osiris and Isis. This divine pair, brother and sister, are portrayed as rulers of the world, post-creation, imparting to humanity the fundamentals of civilization, agriculture, and divine worship. The narrative further explores the depth of female influence through Isis, who, after Osiris is slain by his envious brother Set, revives him, bears his son Horus, and fosters his rise to kingship. Alongside her sister Nephthys and goddesses like Serket and Neith, Isis plays a crucial role in reinstating harmony across the realm.
The deity Hathor, transformed into the avenger Sekhmet, descended to Earth to discipline humans for their sins. However, after indulging in beer, she mellowed, becoming a beloved ally to the people. Tenenet, the beer goddess, esteemed as divine brewer, shared her brewing knowledge, ensuring the drink's sacred status. Seshat, patron of scribes and libraries, along with Tayet, the weaving goddess, and Tefnut, the moisture deity, represented diverse facets of divine femininity.
The cyclical nature of time itself was feminized in the figure of Renpet, who marked the changing seasons with her palm branch. Bastet, revered as a guardian of women, domestic spheres, and secretive wisdom, stood among Egypt's most venerated goddesses. This reverence for the feminine in Egyptian spirituality underscores the significant role women played in religious and temple activities.
**SACRED FEMININITY: WOMEN'S RELIGIOUS AUTHORITY IN ANCIENT EGYPT**
In the religious hierarchy of ancient Egypt, starting in the Middle Kingdom era, the title of "God's Wife of Amun" stood as a pinnacle role for women. This title, initially accessible to women of all social strata but later limited to the upper class, denoted a woman who played a crucial role in rituals and maintained the deity's image.
By the New Kingdom era, this position gained substantial prestige, ultimately achieving a status on par with that of the pharaoh during the Third Intermediate Period, allowing the God's Wife of Amun to govern Upper Egypt. Notably, Hatshepsut, who served as pharaoh, is among the most renowned to have held this title, though she was among many who did.
Beyond this, women had opportunities to become scribes or priests, particularly in religious orders dedicated to female deities. The Isis priesthood included both genders, in contrast to the male-dominated priesthoods of male gods like Amun. The esteemed status of the God's Wife of Amun exemplifies the ancient Egyptian commitment to maintaining a balance of power between genders within their religious institutions.
The term 'cult' in the context of ancient Egyptian religion significantly differs from its contemporary connotation. In ancient Egypt, a 'cult' was akin to what we might call a religious sect today, focusing on specific deities or religious practices. Unlike modern religious services, ancient Egyptian spiritual life centered around festivals and ceremonial events where deities were venerated, with women often playing crucial roles, such as performing in rituals like The Lamentations of Isis and Nephthys during Osiris festivals.
The religious structure was upheld by priests and priestesses who cared for the temples and deities' effigies. While formal worship services like those seen today were absent, the public engaged with the divine through temple visits for guidance, gratitude expressions, and seeking solutions to personal or communal issues. Personal devotion typically occurred at home shrines, presumably maintained by women, reflecting their integral role in spiritual and domestic life.
Women's expertise was also sought in dream interpretation, viewed as a conduit to the afterlife and divine communication. These interpreters, often referred to as 'wise women,' played a significant role in discerning the future and understanding divine messages, a practice believed to be prevalent in the New Kingdom and possibly earlier. Temples known for dream incubation served as places where individuals could seek nocturnal divine encounters for foresight and guidance.
These skilled women excelled in deciphering dreams and forecasting future events. Although surviving records of dream analysis mainly derive from men, such as Hor of Sebennytos and Ptolemaios, son of Glaukius, around 200 BCE, archaeological evidence suggests that women were the principal interpreters in this realm.
Prominently, the Temple of Hathor at Dendera, known for its predominantly female clergy, stands out as a significant center for such divinatory expertise.
**WOMEN'S WORK AND WISDOM IN ANCIENT EGYPT**
In ancient Egypt, the clergy, particularly the priests of Amun, were held in high esteem and led prosperous lives. Historical records from the Early Dynastic Period to the Late Period highlight the accumulation of wealth and land by the clergy. Becoming a priest necessitated extensive education, starting with becoming a scribe, a role that opened pathways to the priesthood, teaching, or medicine for women.
Women often held supervisory roles, with female brewers and launderers regularly overseeing male employees. In the medical field, women achieved significant recognition, with the Alexandrian medical school welcoming international students. An illustrative example is the Greek physician Agnodice, who, after being barred from medical training in Athens due to her gender, pursued her studies in Egypt during the 4th century BCE. She later returned to Athens, disguising herself as a man to practice medicine.
The pathway to becoming a scribe in ancient Egypt was arduous and lengthy, leading to a relatively small number of individuals, regardless of gender, embarking on this career. Often, the scribe profession was hereditary, with a strong emphasis on literacy within scribe families, where children were encouraged to follow in their parents' footsteps. Consequently, many women found employment in various other professions such as weaving, baking, brewing, professional mourning, sandal-making, laundering, basket weaving, cooking, serving, or managing households as "Mistresses of the House," akin to modern estate owners or property managers. Notably, women in roles like brewing and laundering commonly held supervisory positions over men.
In instances of widowhood or divorce, Egyptian women retained the right to their homes and could manage them independently, a stark contrast to the limited property rights of women in early 19th-century America. This level of gender equality in ancient Egypt was remarkable, with women able to control their finances and property. They found diverse ways to supplement their income, from cultivating vegetable gardens to engaging in textile production. Historical records reveal cases of women buying slaves as investments to generate income, sometimes pooling resources with neighbors for such purchases. Women in Egypt could also inherit and manage substantial estates, indicating their significant economic and social autonomy. The documentary evidence of women's active participation in economic life, especially in managing large estates, underscores their ability to operate in roles typically reserved for men, like that of a scribe managing an estate.
Exceptionally skilled women in ancient Egypt had the opportunity to become concubines, a role that entailed more than mere companionship; they were expected to be versed in music, dialogue, textile crafts, fashion, cultural knowledge, religious practices, and the arts. Physical attractiveness was also a significant factor in their selection. An example of this is found in a correspondence from Pharaoh Amenhotep III, who requested 40 concubines, specifically noted for their beauty and weaving skills, from Milkilu, the Prince of Gezer. Amenhotep III offered a lavish payment for these women, indicating the high value placed on their combined aesthetic and practical attributes.
These women would join the pharaoh's harem, enjoying a luxurious life in palaces like Amenhotep III's at Malkata, known for its grandeur. While the pharaoh could have multiple women in his harem, he was expected to remain devoted to his principal wife. Contrary to the royal practice, the average Egyptian marriage was monogamous and lifelong.
**AUTONOMY IN LOVE: MARRIAGE AND RELATIONSHIPS IN ANCIENT EGYPT**
In ancient Egypt, women possessed full legal capacity, enabling them to make independent decisions in all life aspects, including marriage and sexuality. They had the freedom to marry by choice, without family-imposed arrangements, and could initiate divorce without societal backlash, as lifelong marriage was ideal but not obligatory. Marriage in Egypt was more of a social contract than a religious sacrament, lacking priestly ceremonial rites. It involved negotiations and exchanges of valuable items between the suitor and the bride's family, with the practice of providing a "virginity gift" to the bride in first marriages, reflecting the cultural value placed on virginity.
Prenuptial agreements were common, often protecting the woman's interests. Should the husband seek a divorce, he forfeited any claim to the marriage gifts and was obliged to provide alimony until the woman remarried or chose to end the payments. Children typically remained with their mother post-divorce, and she retained the family home unless it was inherited from the husband's side. This framework underscored the significant autonomy and rights Egyptian women held in matrimonial matters.
In ancient Egypt, both married and unmarried women had access to birth control and abortion methods. The Ebers Medical Papyrus, dating back to around 1542 BCE, provides a recipe for contraception, suggesting a concoction of acacia dates and honey applied via seed-wood to prevent pregnancy for up to three years.
While virginity was valued by men at the onset of marriage, it was not a mandatory condition for a woman's wedding night. Pre-marital sexual experience for women did not carry significant societal concern, except in cases where a woman was perceived to disrupt another's marriage, as the emphasis was on maintaining marital and societal stability. Ancient Egyptians viewed life as part of a continuous journey, with the belief that one's life, including marriage, should be fulfilling and eternal.
Artistic depictions from the period, including reliefs, paintings, and inscriptions, often show couples engaged in shared activities like dining, dancing, and working, suggesting a norm of harmonious and enduring marital relationships. Love poetry was a popular expression of affection and eternal commitment, comparable to modern-day romantic expressions, with both men and women as the poets. These cultural artifacts reflect a society that valued the joy and companionship found in love and family life, transcending social status.
**REGAL POWER AND INFLUENCE: THE LEGACY OF EGYPTIAN QUEENS**
The opulence of Egyptian royalty is unmistakable, with queens and consorts living in unparalleled luxury, exemplified by the expansive palace of Amenhotep III at Malkata. This palace, sprawling over 30 hectares, was equipped with lavish apartments, meeting spaces, gardens, and a temple dedicated to Amun, adorned with striking colors and grandeur. Despite their luxurious lifestyle, these royal women played significant roles in upholding the principles of ma'at within the palace and beyond.
Understanding the impact of Egyptian queens in a predominantly male-led hierarchy presents complexities. While many queens existed, the title of principal wife or Great Wife held the most significance, often involving active engagement in state affairs and diplomacy. For instance, Queen Tiye, alongside Amenhotep III, actively participated in governance and diplomatic activities, her prominence akin to that of a king. Similarly, Nefertiti, wife of Akhenaten, managed state affairs, especially when Akhenaten focused on religious reforms.
Historical accounts detail influential queens like Merneith, who acted as regent, and Sobeknefru, who defied traditional gender roles to rule outright. Hatshepsut, perhaps the most famed, declared herself pharaoh, challenging and reshaping the norms of her time. These women were not only partners to their pharaohs but also formidable leaders who left indelible marks on Egyptian history and governance.
**ENDURING LEGACY: THE PINNACLE OF WOMEN'S RIGHTS IN ANCIENT EGYPT**
The status of women in ancient Egypt was extraordinarily advanced, arguably unparalleled at any point in world history, including today. A legend from the 2nd century CE recounts that Isis, alongside Osiris, endowed humanity with gifts, notably gender equality. This ancient narrative mirrors the real historical standing of Egyptian women, who enjoyed a high degree of rights and respect.
Ancient Egyptian society afforded women more freedoms and rights than many modern societies. The zenith of this progressive status was maintained until the Ptolemaic Dynasty, with Cleopatra VII exemplifying female leadership and equality. Her reign marked the end of an era of female empowerment, as the subsequent Roman conquest initiated a decline in women's status.
Scholars trace this decline to the later Ptolemaic Period, a trend that deepened under Roman and later Byzantine rule. The changing attitudes toward women, influenced by Greco-Roman laws and the rise of Christianity, portrayed women as needing male oversight. This decline in women's autonomy and status was exacerbated by the Muslim conquest of Egypt, marking a significant shift from the longstanding tradition of female empowerment that had prevailed for millennia.
